CMNS_326_A_CALL_F0R_MEDIA_LITERACY_IN_THE_ERA_OF_POST_TRUTH
This paper was originally written for July 23, 2023. Minor changes were made to reflect the current reality.
A Call for Media Literacy in the Era of Post-Truth
Before the term “fake news” became popularized by U.S. president Donald Trump during the 2016 election, branches of what encompasses the term had already existed. Some examples include propaganda, satire, parody, and fabrication. While they all carry their distinct meanings, each form of said term can fall into “fake news,” which Trump linked to news he did not like or agree with. While fake news does not necessarily point to news we do not like today, since the 2016 U.S. presidential election, this term opened up conversation on a wide scale on what journalism should be for the public. Who decides what is “truth”? What factors influence news bearers? When we start to question not only the news but the underlying power structures upholding news, it becomes increasingly difficult to not only be informed, but to form opinions. In short, in this so-called “post-truth” era, deciphering what we believe or should believe through the media affects democracy.
This paper will focus on how youth specifically interact with media channels in the post-truth era and what they can learn moving forward. As the changing structure of journalism in the 21st century is technology focused, it is useful to look at the effects of technology in the creation of “fake news” for a demographic that relies primarily on digital applications to get their news. We will explore the history and political economy of journalism, objectivity, and ethics to understand how youth can best interact with news. Without understanding the underlying motivations of why news is framed or marketed a certain way or what to question and look out for, also known as media literacy, this presents as a major issue in opposition to remaining informed.
History of Journalism
In order to understand how any system works now, it’s useful to look at the past. In this case, the most common understanding of journalism is that it consists of news which informs the public and encourages debate, while prioritizing the market and “what sells.” The earlier forms of journalism evolved rapidly with the creation of the printing press, and with that, widespread news. The King of England in the 16th century, Henry VIII, sought to control the press to avoid any opposition to the monarch and the elite (Steel, 2009). Meanwhile, in America, the popularity of being politically informed through journalism became commodified.
It was important figures during the Enlightenment period — Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, who spread the word about “free(dom of) press” and how essential journalism is to a democratic society (Steel, 2009). This coincides with the conversation of ethics in journalism, and how there is no formal definition of 'ethics,’ because it impedes on free press (Hume, 2012). There is more than one idea of morality in the world, and whether journalism is "ethical" depends on the public and the journalist, who both carry different beliefs. In criticizing the existence of 'ethics' in journalism, Hume explains that deeming something as "ethical" in the industry is a way of controlling how a journalist may want something to be perceived. Deciding what is "right" and "wrong" for the public interest creates boundaries where there should not be any for consumers of the news, who should be encouraged to think for themselves and engage with news the way they want. If journalism is based on freedom of expression, then the understanding of 'ethics' beyond creating standards for control must be rethought.
Nowadays, the general understanding of journalism is being challenged with newer forms of it, such as blogs, zines, and other decentralized platforms to spread news to the public. We are arguably in an era where the public sphere is “genuine” because there is less control of journalism in comparison to its earlier developments, although it is messier and the public is in need of media literacy to decipher how and what to think about 21st century journalism.
Considering how the elite/British monarch used journalism to spread propaganda the same way politicians nowadays work with news companies and journalists, and the consequence of market competition, news being exaggerated is something to keep in mind. For young people, especially, they tend to interact with news that they are already interested in (Nee, 2019). Younger people won't just become interested in a story unless it has a captivating title or synopsis. In that case, it can be more difficult to inform them of important news they maybe should be aware of. Regardless of what news people are reading, it’s also important to question and analyze the source. Does this news company have a political leaning? Is this journalist credible? How and why are they credible? Are multiple sources saying the same thing? All of these questions should be implicated in the act of interacting with news.
The Political Economy of Journalism
Since the 2016 U.S. presidential election, more people have become distrustful of the news (Wagner & Boczkowski, 2019). It was U.S. President Donald Trump who popularized the term “fake news,” in relation to news he did not like, which consequently influenced all news to be questioned for truth. This gave rise to alternative media, such as independent journalists and decentralized, analog formats. Right now, all media channels and formats are oversaturated with news and because bigger news companies lack credibility, it is now a necessity to check multiple sources for “truth” (Peters & Broersma, 2013). Nowadays, an independent journalist can be seen as even more credible than already established companies because they appear more genuine and responsible. This is because politicians are tied with major news companies to help their political platforms by showing them in a positive light, which is but a single issue that is a product of the industrialization of journalism, since the practice is supposed to be objective and not capital or market driven.
According to Stephens (2014), objectivity in journalism is more so a goal, than it is a requirement, as it is difficult to truly be objective. He says that journalists should be aware of how they come to conclusions and come up with stories, as they influence their limitations to reaching objectivity. For example, other than journalists perhaps trying to make a quota at work or trying to write a captivating story, their socioeconomic background can influence how they write news and what they choose to write on. For independent journalists who may share their stories on Youtube, mentioning sponsorships is an explicit way of showing how their story was influenced.
Stephens (2014) also criticizes the lack of wisdom in journalists, who may tend to find the juiciest part of the story in order to sell; instead of approaching stories with wanting to understand the nuances. However, he does acknowledge how a journalist's opinion reflecting through their work contributes to higher audience reach in the present era, and mentions both its pros and cons. For example, opinions can offer new perspectives, but they can also be completely wrong. In striving for objective journalism, including different sides to stories would help deepen a story.
In addition, Broersma & Peters (2013) say that the audience shapes journalism, and thus players in the industry must prioritize working with them instead of capital gain. An example of ideal journalism is local news, because they consist of stories pertaining to a specific group of people rather than “the world.” This makes the news more personable, showing the audience why they should care and connects to them on an emotional level, which is a difficult feat when it comes to shorter or exaggerated news that exists for short-term gain. For long-term gain, news companies and journalists should consider using current popular technologies and marketing to help connect with how the audience/public has changed. Since the public will always be in need of information, it’s important that the industry is aware of its power and role within these highly digitized times even if it presents its problems.
Issues With Digital News Outlets
Several studies showcase the issues around technology and the news. In a study conducted by Vázquez-Herrero et al. (2019), they found that "across all countries, one-third of 18- to 24-year-olds now use social media as their main source of news." The study analyzed the use of Instagram stories as a viable form of “glance journalism” and how this media tool impacts circulation of news. Because of how Instagram stories are structured in a way that content can be consumed in seconds, news can easily be exposed to younger folks on the app even if they are not seeking it out. This phenomenon leads this demographic to feel like they are more informed than they are.
Although the use of Instagram stories does help boost engagement with news companies, its structure does not encourage participatory action, which is detrimental to democracy. Because of how Instagram and the “stories” feature itself is structured on a consumption/capitalist model, the feature acts more as a one-way communication street where Instagram stories are more like billboards that people see and pass by. The study did find that news companies using Instagram stories brought more subscribers and followers, but did not analyze if it meant it made more informed citizens in a way that journalism aims to produce.
Another study conducted by Wagner & Boczkowski (2019) on the reception of fake news and misinformation, concluded with a call for both media literacy and for the journalism industry to reinvent itself. The study used data from 2017, which consisted of interviewing 71 adults in the greater Chicago, Miami, and Philadelphia area. The context is 10 months since the 2016 U.S. presidential election which resulted in the Trump administration, a mass turning point in assessing credible news. In making sense of the changing news landscape, the interviews touched upon "opinions about the overall media ecosystem," "trusting the media one consumes and third-person effects," "using social media for news consumption but perceiving platforms as untrustworthy," "becoming more alert regarding news quality," "experience/knowledge/credibility," "triangulation of ideologically different or non-media sources," and "relying on certain social media contacts as credibility assessors."
Factors such as credibility of news sources is an overarching theme in these interview findings. This includes taking into account long-running news companies and their credibility, but it also includes following certain friends and acquaintances whom they know are more educated in certain areas and therefore trust to share reliable news (Wagner & Boczkowski, 2019). Another practice that some of the interviewers do in their new interaction is looking at news from opposing ideological sources, which can help with the issue of bias.
It is important to note, as the authors did, that none of the interviewees touched upon the journalists behind misinformation themselves and the power dynamics behind news sources other than political ideology such as liberalism and conservatism. This can be a product of this research, dated 2017, or a contributor to an issue that is still present within the journalism industry in constant transformation.
In a study conducted by Nee (2019), she analyzes data from samples of teens and young adults in the Middle Easte and the U.S. on how they get their news on social media and what measures they use to check news validity. In the study, the social media apps that were counted for were Youtube, Whatsapp, Instagram, Snapchat, Facebook and Twitter. Prominent findings found that in autocratic countries with restrictions on free speech, encrypted platforms like Whatsapp, are more popular to not only discuss the news, but to mobilize due to the higher security measures. On the other hand, Instagram, Snapchat, Facebook, and Twitter were more popular in democratic countries. Participants in the Middle East showed more confidence in their ability to find fake news, but the article shares this study was conducted post 2016 U.S. presidential election, when fake news became a mass problem, and also mentioned this lack of awareness of fake news as an issue could be due to restricted freedom of press.
On how participants in the study verify the validity of news, an important finding focused on social cues, which included looking at comments to influence whether one should engage in the content and if the person sharing news was trustworthy (for example, if a famous journalist shared a piece of news). The problem with relying on others in this context is that it often perpetuates bias. The balancing of creating news that is easily digestible, while still upholding journalistic standards like objectivity and nuance is still a learning curve that many news companies and journalists are being called to adapt to. However, the increase in technological advancement supersedes this issue, which further highlights the need to teach media literacy in all education levels and fields.
Conclusion
The beginnings of journalism that took place during 16th century England and Enlightenment mirror issues with the news we still see today. Journalism is used to spread information, but how it can be spread was always influenced by capital, power, and politics. It isn’t to say that news is always pushing an agenda, but expecting objectivity from journalists can be ignorant. Instead, it is best to diversify your sources and question what factors encompass the news.
Technological advancement and the conversation surrounding “fake news” are the overarching themes in journalism’s renaissance. Due to the rapid development of technology, several studies equally call upon the industry to adapt and for news consumers to develop media literacy. In the context of youth, it is not an easy task to create news that both keeps young people interested while also educating them on what's happening, other than short-form media which hopefully drives them to reading long-form media. Even then, we can no longer solely rely on marketing. What journalists and news companies need to prioritize is the skills needed to keep people interested and informed, while also not cutting corners and exaggerating news, which can be misleading.
Finally, it is not only the job of journalists to adapt to current digital media platforms, but news consumers themselves to always question what they are reading, why they are choosing one piece over another, and how they are getting information. Youth should reflect on their own assumptions and expectations of journalism so that they remain more open-minded about news, because sometimes news is difficult to process and that should be okay.
References
Steel, J (2009). The Idea of Journalism. In W.F. Eadie (Eds.), 21st century communication: a reference handbook (pp.583-591). Sage.
Hume, M. (2012). There is No Such Thing as a Free Press:... and we need one more than ever (Vol. 31). Andrews UK Limited.
Nee, R. C. (2019). Youthquakes in a Post-Truth Era: Exploring Social Media News Use and Information Verification Actions Among Global Teens and Young Adults. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 1077695818825215.
Peters, C., & Broersma, M. J. (2013). Rethinking journalism: Trust and participation in a transformed news landscape. Routledge.
Stephens, M. (2014). Beyond news: The future of journalism. Columbia University Press.
Vázquez-Herrero, J., Direito-Rebollal, S., & López-García, X. (2019). Ephemeral journalism: News distribution through Instagram stories. Social media+ society, 5(4), 2056305119888657.
Wagner, M. C., & Boczkowski, P. J. (2019). The reception of fake news: The interpretations and practices that shape the consumption of perceived misinformation. Digital journalism, 7(7), 870-885.